第一篇：中英文對照資料外文翻譯文獻

中英文對照資料外文翻譯文獻

平設計任何時期平面設計可以參照一些藝術和專業(yè)學科側重于視覺傳達和介紹。采用多種方式相結合，創(chuàng)造和符號，圖像和語句創(chuàng)建一個代表性的想法和信息。平面設計師可以使用印刷，視覺藝術和排版技術產生的最終結果。平面設計常常提到的進程，其中溝通是創(chuàng)造和產品設計。共同使用的平面設計包括雜志，廣告，產品包裝和網(wǎng)頁設計。例如，可能包括產品包裝的標志或其他藝術作品，舉辦文字和純粹的設計元素，如形狀和顏色統(tǒng)一件。組成的一個最重要的特點，尤其是平面設計在使用前現(xiàn)有材料或不同的元素。平面設計涵蓋了人類歷史上諸多領域，在此漫長的歷史和在相對最近爆炸視覺傳達中的第20和21世紀，人們有時是模糊的區(qū)別和重疊的廣告藝術，平面設計和美術。畢竟，他們有著許多相同的內容，理論，原則，做法和語言，有時同樣的客人或客戶。廣告藝術的最終目標是出售的商品和服務。在平面設計，“其實質是使以信息，形成以思想，言論和感覺的經驗”。在唐朝（618-906）之間的第4和第7世紀的木塊被切斷打印紡織品和后重現(xiàn)佛典。阿藏印在868是已知最早的印刷書籍。在19世紀后期歐洲，尤其是在英國，平面設計開始以獨立的運動從美術中分離出來。蒙德里安稱為父親的圖形設計。他是一個很好的藝術家，但是他在現(xiàn)代廣告中利用現(xiàn)代電網(wǎng)系統(tǒng)在廣告、印刷和網(wǎng)絡布局網(wǎng)格。于1849年，在大不列顛亨利科爾成為的主要力量之一在設計教育界，該國政府通告設計在雜志設計和制造的重要性。他組織了大型的展覽作為慶?，F(xiàn)代工業(yè)技術和維多利亞式的設計。從1892年至1896年威廉?莫里斯凱爾姆斯科特出版社出版的書籍的一些最重要的平面設計產品和工藝美術運動，并提出了一個非常賺錢的商機就是出版?zhèn)ゴ笪谋菊摰膱D書并以高價出售給富人。莫里斯證明了市場的存在使平面設計在他們自己擁有的權利，并幫助開拓者從生產和美術分離設計。這歷史相對論是，然而，重要的，因為它為第一次重大的反應對于十九世紀的陳舊的平面設計。莫里斯的工作，以及與其他私營新聞運動，直接影響新藝術風格和間接負責20世紀初非專業(yè)性平面設計的事態(tài)發(fā)展。誰創(chuàng)造了最初的“平面設計”似乎存在爭議。這被歸因于英國的設計師和大學教授Richard Guyatt，但另一消息來源于20世紀初美國圖書設計師William Addison Dwiggins。倫敦地鐵的標志設計是愛德華約翰斯頓于1916年設計的一個經典的現(xiàn)代而且使用了系統(tǒng)字體設計。在20世紀20年代，蘇聯(lián)的建構主義應用于“智能生產”在不同領域的生產。個性化的運動藝術在 2 俄羅斯大革命是沒有價值的，從而走向以創(chuàng)造物體的功利為目的。他們設計的建筑、劇院集、海報、面料、服裝、家具、徽標、菜單等。Jan Tschichold 在他的1928年書中編纂了新的現(xiàn)代印刷原則，他后來否認他在這本書的法西斯主義哲學主張，但它仍然是非常有影響力。Tschichold，包豪斯印刷專家如赫伯特拜耳和拉斯洛莫霍伊一納吉，和El Lissitzky 是平面設計之父都被我們今天所知。他們首創(chuàng)的生產技術和文體設備，主要用于整個二十世紀。隨后的幾年看到平面設計在現(xiàn)代風格獲得廣泛的接受和應用。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)結束后，美國經濟的建立更需要平面設計，主要是廣告和包裝等。移居國外的德國包豪斯設計學院于1937年到芝加哥帶來了“大規(guī)模生產”極簡到美國;引發(fā)野火的“現(xiàn)代”建筑和設計。值得注意的名稱世紀中葉現(xiàn)代設計包括阿德里安Frutiger，設計師和Frutiger字體大學;保蘭德，從20世紀30年代后期，直到他去世于1996年，采取的原則和適用包豪斯他們受歡迎的廣告和標志設計，幫助創(chuàng)造一個獨特的辦法，美國的歐洲簡約而成為一個主要的先驅。平面設計稱為企業(yè)形象;約瑟夫米勒，羅克曼，設計的海報嚴重尚未獲取1950年代和1960年代時代典型。從道路標志到技術圖表，從備忘錄到參考手冊，增強了平面設計的知識轉讓?？勺x性增強了文字的視覺效果。設計還可以通過理念或有效的視覺傳播幫助銷售產品。將它應用到產品和公司識別系統(tǒng)的要素像標志、顏色和文字。連同這些被定義為品牌。品牌已日益成為重要的提供的服務范圍，許多平面設計師，企業(yè)形象和條件往往是同時交替使用。教科書的目的是本科目，如地理、科學和數(shù)學。這些出版物已布局理論設計說明和圖表。一個常見的例子，在使用圖形，教育是圖表人體解剖學。平面設計也適用于布局和格式的教育材料，使信息更容易和更容易理解的。平面設計是應用在娛樂行業(yè)的裝飾，景觀和視覺故事。其他的例子娛樂設計用途包括小說，漫畫，電影中的開幕和閉幕，在舞臺上節(jié)目的和道具的安排。這也包括藝術品在T恤衫的應用和其他物品的出售。從科學雜志報道，提出意見和事實往往是提高圖形和深思熟慮的組成視覺信息-被稱為信息的設計。報紙，雜志，博客，電視和電影紀錄片，可以使用平面設計通知及娛樂。隨著網(wǎng)絡，信息與經驗的交互設計的工具，Adobe和Flash正越來越多地被用來說明的背景新聞。一個平面設計項目可能涉及程式化和介紹現(xiàn)有的文字，或者事先存在的意向或圖像開發(fā)的平面設計師。例如，一家報紙的故事始于記者和攝影記者，然后成為平面設計師的工作安排到一個合理的頁面布局，并確定是否有任何其他圖形元素應當要求。在一本雜志的文章或廣告，往往是平面設計師或藝術總監(jiān)將委員會攝影師或插圖創(chuàng)建原始文件只是被納入設計規(guī)劃?，F(xiàn)代設計的做法已經擴展到了現(xiàn)代的計算機，例如在使用所見的用戶界面，通常被稱為交互式設計，或多媒體設計。任何圖形元素用于設計之前，圖形元素必須是源于通過視覺藝術技能。這些圖形通常（但并不總是）被設計師開發(fā)。視覺藝術的作品主要是視覺性的東西從使用傳統(tǒng)的傳播媒介、攝影或電腦產生的藝術。平面設計原則可以適用于每一個人的版畫藝術元素，并最終組成。3 印刷術是藝術，工藝和技術型，修改類型字形，并安排類型的設計。類型字形（字符）的創(chuàng)建和修改使用各種說明方法。這項安排的類型是選擇字體、大小、線長、主要的（行距）和文字的間距。刷術是由排字工機，排字，印刷工人，圖形藝術家，藝術總監(jiān)，工作者和辦事員。直到數(shù)字時代，印刷成為一個專業(yè)的領域。數(shù)字化開辟了新的視覺設計師和用戶。排版設計師平面設計的一部分，是在網(wǎng)頁設計中是圖形設計，處理安排風格（內容）的要素。從早期的照明網(wǎng)頁手工復制書籍的中世紀和程序，以錯綜復雜的現(xiàn)代雜志和目錄布局，適當?shù)木W(wǎng)頁設計公司長期以來一直是考慮的印刷材料，與印刷媒體，內容通常包括類型（文字，圖片（照片）偶爾發(fā)生持有者圖形的內容，沒有印刷油墨，如模具/激光切割，燙金壓印或盲目壓花。平面設計師常常專心研究于界面設計，如網(wǎng)頁設計和軟件設計，最終用戶的交互性是一個設計考慮的布局或接口。視覺溝通技巧、互動溝通技巧與用戶互動得相結合和在線品牌推廣，平面設計師往往與軟件開發(fā)和網(wǎng)絡開發(fā)人員創(chuàng)建的外觀和風格的網(wǎng)站或軟件應用程序，來加強用戶或網(wǎng)絡網(wǎng)站的訪問者互動體驗。版畫是在紙上，其他有機材料或者表面上印刷藝術品的過程。每一張不會被復制，但時最初的因為它不是一個復制的另一藝術作品，并在技術上稱為留下深刻的印象。繪畫或素描，另一方面，創(chuàng)造了獨特的原始藝術品。版畫是由一個單一的原始表面創(chuàng)造的，在技術上已經作為基質而被已知。常見的矩陣包括：金屬板，通常是銅或鋅的雕刻或蝕刻石料，用于光刻;塊木刻的木材，油氈和織物板的絲網(wǎng)印刷。但也有許多其他種類，討論如下：作品從一個單一的印刷板創(chuàng)造一個版本，在現(xiàn)代通常每個簽署和編號，形成限量。打印也可編制成冊，作為藝術家的書籍。一個單一的打印可能是產品的一種或多種技術。色彩學領域是如何在打印機上和顯示器上用眼睛識別顏色和如何解釋和組織這些色彩。眼睛的視網(wǎng)膜被兩個被命名為視桿和視錐的感光體涵蓋。視桿對光很敏感但是對顏色不是很敏感。視錐卻與視桿恰恰相反。他們對光不太敏感，但是顏色可以被感知。隨著科技的發(fā)展，人們越來越認識到環(huán)境問題日益嚴重，大氣污染、森林破壞、水土流失、土地沙漠

化、水資源污染、大量物種滅絕、石油、天然氣、煤等資源枯竭。作為工業(yè)設計師，應該有強烈的環(huán)境 保護意識，使得自己的設計建立在不破壞環(huán)境及節(jié)約自然資源的基礎上。

其中，溫室效應、臭氧層破壞和酸雨是當今全球性的三大環(huán)境問題。

溫室效應就是大氣變暖的效應其形成原因是太陽短波輻射可以透過大氣射入地面，而地面增暖后放

出的長波輻射卻被大氣中的二氧化碳就像一層厚厚的玻璃，把地球變成了一個大暖房。甲烷、臭氧、氯、氟烴以及水汽等也對溫室效應有所貢獻。隨著人口的急劇增加和工業(yè)的迅速發(fā)展，越來越多的二氧化碳 排入大氣中；

又由于森林被大量砍伐，大氣中原本應被森林吸收的二氧化碳沒有被吸收，致使二氧化碳 逐漸增加，溫室效應也不斷增強。溫室效應的后果十分嚴重，自然生態(tài)將隨之發(fā)生重大變化，荒漠將擴

大，土地侵蝕加重，森林退向極地，旱澇災害嚴重，雨量增加；溫帶冬天更濕、夏天更旱；熱帶也將變 得更濕，干熱的亞熱帶變得更干旱，迫使原有水利工程重新調整。沿海將受到嚴重威脅。由于氣溫升高，兩極冰塊將融化，使海平面上升，將會淹沒許多城市和港口。

臭氧層破壞現(xiàn)象引起科學界及整個國際社會的震動。美國的兩位科學家 Monila 和 Rowland 指出，正是人為的活動造成了今天的臭氧洞。元兇就是現(xiàn)在所熟知的氟利昂和哈龍。

酸雨目前已成為一種范圍廣泛、跨越國界的大氣污染現(xiàn)象。酸雨破壞土壤，使湖泊酸化，危害動植

物生長；刺激人的皮膚，誘發(fā)皮膚病，引起肺水腫、肺硬化；會腐蝕金屬制品、油漆、皮革、紡織品和 含碳酸鹽的建筑。

總而言之，人類生活的環(huán)境已經日益惡化。

而惡化的原因大部分屬于人類本身的不良生活方式和不 尊重客觀規(guī)律，急功近利，對于地球資源的使用沒有科學的計劃性，而且在設計、制造產品以及日常生

活中缺乏保護環(huán)境的意識，以至于自毀家園，其危害不僅于當代，而且嚴重影響了子孫后代的生存。

環(huán)境問題在很大程度上是由于人們的不良設計、生活方式造成的后果。于是給設計師們提出了一個

嚴肅的問題：作為設計師，應肩負起保護環(huán)境的歷史重任！

工業(yè)在為人類創(chuàng)造大量物質財富的同時，也給世界帶來了災難。工業(yè)設計在為人類創(chuàng)造了現(xiàn)代生活

方式的同時，也加速了資源、能源的消耗，并對地球的生態(tài)平衡造成了巨大的破壞。

所以，作為工業(yè)設計師，建立環(huán)境意識體現(xiàn)了其道德和社會責任心。設計師必須對自己的設計負責，必須把人類的健康幸福，自然與人類的和諧共存作為設計中心遵循的原則。

設計師還必須掌握必要的材料、工藝、化工、制造等方面的知識，使得其設計不對環(huán)境造成危害而 成為可能。

“可持續(xù)發(fā)展設計” 這一概念的提出，對于人性的回歸及世界真正意義上的發(fā)展具有劃時代的意義。他體現(xiàn)了設計師的道德與責任，已成為 21 世紀設計發(fā)展的總趨勢。從此，人類傳統(tǒng)工業(yè)文明發(fā)展模式

轉向現(xiàn)代生態(tài)文明發(fā)展模式。它是社會進步，經濟增長，環(huán)境保護三者之間的協(xié)同。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展是人們應遵循的一種全新的倫理、道德和價值觀念。其本質在于：充分利用現(xiàn)代科技，大力開發(fā)綠色資源，發(fā)展清潔生產，不斷改善和優(yōu)化生態(tài)環(huán)境，促使人與自然的和諧發(fā)展，人口、資源 和環(huán)境相互協(xié)調。

解決可持續(xù)反展問題是一個技術創(chuàng)新和行為模式轉變的問題。

可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略是解決在不危害未來幾代人的需求前提下，盡量滿足當代人的需求的問題。實現(xiàn)目

前利益與長遠利益的統(tǒng)一，為子孫后代留下發(fā)展空間。

目前可持續(xù)發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略考慮的問題有：循環(huán)性、綠色能源、生態(tài)效率。

綠色設計源于人們對于現(xiàn)代技術文化所引起的環(huán)境及生態(tài)破壞的反思。綠色設計著眼于人與自然的

生態(tài)平衡關系，在設計過程的每一個決策中都充分考慮到環(huán)境效益，盡量減少對環(huán)境的破壞。

對工業(yè)設計師而言，綠色設計的核心是“ 3R ”，即“減少”（Reduce）、“再循環(huán)”(Recycle)和“再 利用”（Reuse)。不僅要盡量減少物質和能源的消耗、減少有害物質的排放，而且要使產品及零件能夠 5 方便的分類回收，并再生循環(huán)或重新利用。

綠色設計不僅是一種技術層面的考慮，更重要的是一種觀念 上的變革。

要求設計師放棄那種過分強調產品在外觀上標新立異的做法，而將重點放在真正意義上的創(chuàng) 新上面，已一種更為負責的方法去創(chuàng)造產品的形態(tài)，用更簡潔、長久的造型使產品盡可能地延長其使用 壽命。

從材料方面要考慮： 原材料的存量和可再生性，獲取材料時的環(huán)境能源的消耗與污染，后續(xù)加工時

環(huán)境材料的易加工性，低能耗性、低污染性，報廢時的可回收性。

從加工制造方面要考慮：加工制造階段需要將污染減至最少，或將污染消滅在生產過程初始階段。

從包裝、運輸、銷售等方面要考慮：包裝的環(huán)境性能、綠色包裝，良好的可運輸性、降低自重、減 少能耗，當?shù)鼗a及減少物流過程消耗。

從產品的使用階段考慮： 使用中的能耗、資源消耗。

產品更新?lián)Q代時環(huán)境性能的模塊化、可重組性、產品的使用模式等因素。

從產品的報廢階段考慮：易拆卸性，便于分解和分類，材料可回收性和可再利用性，零部件可重組 性或移作它用等因素。

清潔的能源：如考慮太陽能、水電、風力的清潔燃料；清潔的材料，涉及低污染、無毒、易降解和 可回收性；清潔的制造過程，考慮低能耗、少排放的制造；清潔的產品，涉及使用中節(jié)能、環(huán)保、報廢 后的回收。

零部件的再生利用濕可持續(xù)戰(zhàn)略的有力措施。事實證明： 報廢的產品拆卸后，經分析，其中材料在

改進設計后可重用和經翻新后可重用的比例可以提高。

比如：一輛報廢車中，金屬材料占 80 ％，其中，有色金屬占 3 ％～ 4.7 ％。世界鋼產量中的 45 ％是 由廢鋼鐵生產出的。中國鋼產量的 25 ％是由廢鋼鐵生產的。

產品全生命周期管理是指從人對產品的需求開始，到產品淘汰報廢的全部生命歷程。其中包括產

品需求分析產品計劃、概念設計、產品設計、數(shù)字化仿真、工藝準備、工藝規(guī)劃、生產測試和質量監(jiān)控、銷售與分銷、使用、維護與維修，以及報廢與回收等主要階段。將先進的管理理念和一流的信息技術有

機融入到現(xiàn)代企業(yè)的工業(yè)和商業(yè)運作中，從而使企業(yè)在數(shù)字經濟時代能夠有效地調整經營手段和管理方式，以發(fā)揮企業(yè)前所未有的競爭優(yōu)勢。幫助企業(yè)進行產品創(chuàng)新，贏得市場，并獲得額外利潤，以提高企業(yè)產品的價值。

GRAPHIC DESIGN The term graphic design can refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual communication and presentation.Various methods are used to create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a visual representation of ideas and messages.A graphic designer may use typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce the final result.Graphic design often refers to both the process by which the communication is created and the products which are generated.Common uses of graphic design include magazines, advertisements, product packaging and web design.For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece.Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.Graphic Design spans the history of humankind from the caves of Lascaux to the dazzling neons of Ginza.In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art.After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services.In graphic design, “the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience.” During the Tang dynasty(618–906)between the 4th and 7th century A.D.wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts.A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book.In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.Piet Mondrian is known as the father of graphic design.He was a fine artist, but his use of grids inspired the modern grid system used today in advertising, print and web layout.In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures.He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.From 1892 to 1896 William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and 2 made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium.Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art.The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles.This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design.Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.Who originally coined the term “graphic design” appears to be in dispute.It has been attributed to Richard Guyatt, the British designer and academic, but another source suggests William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century The signage in the London Underground is a classic of the modern era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes.They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography.He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today.They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century.The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging.The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a “mass-produced”minimalism to America;sparking a wild fire of “modern”architecture and design.Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger;Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity；and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1960s era.3 From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge.Readability is enhanced by improving the visual presentation of text.Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication.It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, and text.Together these are defined as branding(see also advertising).Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity, and the terms are often used interchangeably.Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math.These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams.A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy.Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, opening credits and closing credits in film, and programs and props on stage.This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information-known as information design.Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain.With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer.For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required.In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout.Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills.These graphics are often(but not always)developed 4 by a graphic designer.Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art.Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.Type glyphs(characters)are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading(line spacing)and letter spacing.Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers.Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation.Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement and style treatment of elements(content)on a page.Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long been a consideration in printed material.With print media, elements usually consist of type(text), images(pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.Graphic designers are often involved in interface design, such as web design and software design when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface.Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor.Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print.Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression.Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork.Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching;stone, used for lithography;blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing.But there are many other kinds, discussed below.Works printed from a single

第二篇：超聲波測距畢業(yè)論文中英文對照資料外文翻譯文獻

超聲波測距畢業(yè)論文中英文對照資料外文翻譯文獻

超聲波測距 中英文對照資料外文翻譯 超聲測距系統(tǒng)設計 原文出處：傳感器文摘 布拉福德:1993年 第13頁摘要：超聲測距技術在工業(yè)現(xiàn)場、車輛導航、水聲工程等領域都具有廣泛的應用價值，目前已應用于物位測量、機器人自動導航以及空氣中與水下的目標探測、識別、定位等場合。因此，深入研究超聲的測距理論和方法具有重要的實踐意義。為了進一步提高測距的精確度，滿足工程人員對測量精度、測距量程和測距儀使用的要求，本文研制了一套基于單片機的便攜式超聲測距系統(tǒng)。關鍵詞：超聲波，測距儀，單片機

1、前言 隨著科技的發(fā)展，人們生活水平的提高，城市發(fā)展建設加快，城市給排水系統(tǒng)也有較大發(fā)展，其狀況不斷改善。但是，由于歷史原因合成時間住的許多不可預見因素，城市給排水系統(tǒng)，特別是排水系統(tǒng)往往落后于城市建設。因此，經常出現(xiàn)開挖已經建設好的建筑設施來改造排水系統(tǒng)的現(xiàn)象。城市污水給人們帶來了困擾，因此箱涵的排污疏通對大城市給排水系統(tǒng)污水處理，人們生活舒適顯得非常重要。而設計研制箱涵排水疏通移動機器人的自動控制系統(tǒng)，保證機器人在箱涵中自由排污疏通，是箱涵排污疏通機器人的設計研制的核心部分?？刂葡到y(tǒng)核心部分就是超聲波測距儀的研制。因此，設計好的超聲波測距儀就顯得非常重要了。

2、超聲波測距原理2.1 壓電式超聲波發(fā)生器原理 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯 壓電式超聲波發(fā)生器實際上是利用壓電晶體的諧振來工作的。超聲波發(fā)生器內部結構，它有兩個壓電晶片和一個共振板。當它的兩極外加脈沖信號，其頻率等于壓電晶片的固有振蕩頻率時，壓電晶片將會發(fā)生共振，并帶動共振板振動，便產生超聲波。反之，如果兩電極間未外加電壓，當共振板接收到超聲波 時，將壓迫壓電晶片作振動，將機械能轉換為電信號，這時它就成為超聲波接收器了。測量脈沖到達時間的傳統(tǒng)方法是以擁有固定參數(shù)的接收信號開端為基礎的。這個界限恰恰選于噪音水平之上，然而脈沖到達時間被定義為脈沖信號剛好超過界限的第一時刻。一個物體的脈沖強度很大程度上取決于這個物體的自然屬性尺寸還有它與傳感器的距離。進一步說，從脈沖起始點到剛好超過界限之間的時間段隨著脈沖的強度而改變。結果，一種錯誤便出現(xiàn)了——兩個擁有不同強度的脈沖在不同時間超過界限卻在同一時間到達。強度較強的脈沖會比強度較弱的脈沖超過界限的時間早點，因此我們會認為強度較強的脈沖屬于較近的物體。2.2 超聲波測距原理 超聲波發(fā)射器向某一方向發(fā)射超聲波，在發(fā)射時刻的同時開始計時，超聲波在空氣中傳播，途中碰到障礙物就立即返回來，超聲波接收器收到反射波就立即停止計時。超聲波在空氣中的傳播速度為 340m/s，根據(jù)計時器記錄的時間 t，就可以計算出發(fā)射點距障礙物的距離s，即：s340t/

23、超聲波測距系統(tǒng)的電路設計 系統(tǒng)的特點是利用單片機控制超聲波的發(fā)射和對超聲波自發(fā)射至接收往返時間的計時，單片機選用 C51，經濟易用，且片內有 4K 的 ROM，便于編程。電路原理圖如圖 1 所示。‐1‐畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯 圖 1 電路原理圖 ‐2‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯3.1 40kHz 脈沖的產生與超聲波發(fā)射 測距系統(tǒng)中的超聲波傳感器采用 UCM40 的壓電陶瓷傳感器，它的工作電壓是40kHz 的脈沖信號，這由單片機執(zhí)行下面程序來產生。puzel： mov 14h 12h；超聲波發(fā)射持續(xù) 200mshere： cpl p1.0 ； 輸出 40kHz 方波 nop ； nop ； nop ； djnz 14h，here； ret 前方測距電路的輸入端接單片機 P1.0 端口，單片機執(zhí)行上面的程序后，在 P1.0端口輸出一個 40kHz 的脈沖信號，經過三極管 T 放大，驅動超聲波發(fā)射頭 UCM40T，發(fā)出 40kHz 的脈沖超聲波，且持續(xù)發(fā)射 200ms。右側和左側測 距電路的輸入端分別接 P1.1 和 P1.2 端口，工作原理與前方測距電路相同。3.2 超聲波的接收與處理 接收頭采用與發(fā)射頭配對的 UCM40R，將超聲波調制脈沖變?yōu)榻蛔冸妷盒盘?，?IC2運算放大器 IC1A 和 IC1B 兩極放大后加至 IC2。是帶有鎖 定環(huán)的音頻譯碼集成塊LM567，內部的壓控振蕩器的中心頻率 f01/1.1R8C3，電容 C4 決定其鎖定帶寬。調節(jié) R8 在發(fā)射的載頻上，則 LM567 輸入信號大于 25mV，輸出端 8 腳由高電平躍變?yōu)榈碗娖?，作為中斷請求信號，送至單片機處理.前方測距電路的輸出端接單片機 INT0 端口，中斷優(yōu)先級最高，左、右測距電路的輸出通過與門 IC3A 的輸出接單片機 INT1 端口，同時單片機 P1.3 和 P1.4 接到 IC3A的輸入端，中斷源的識別由程序查詢來處理，中斷優(yōu)先級為先右后左。部分源程序如下：receive1：push psw push acc clr ex1； 關外部中斷 1 jnb p1.1right；P1.1 引腳為 0轉至右測距電路中斷服務程序 ‐3‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯 jnb p1.2left；P1.2 引腳為 0轉至左測距電路中斷服務程序return： SETB EX1； 開外部中斷 1 pop acc pop psw retiright：...； 右測距電路中斷服務程序入口 ajmp returnleft：...； 左測距電路中斷服務程序入口 ajmp return3.3 計算超聲波傳播時間 在啟動發(fā)射電路的同時啟動單片機內部的定時器 T0，利用定時器的計數(shù)功能記錄超聲波發(fā)射的時間和收到反射波的時間。當收到超聲波反射波時，接收電路 輸出端產生一個負跳變，在 INT0 或 INT1 端產生一個中斷請求信號，單片機響應外部中斷請求，執(zhí)行外部中斷服務子程序，讀取時間差，計算距離。其部分源程序如下：RECEIVE0： PUSH PSW PUSH ACC CLR EX0 ； 關外部中斷 0 MOV R7 TH0 ； 讀取時間值 MOV R6 TL0 CLR C MOV A R6 SUBB A 0BBH； 計算時間差 MOV 31H A ； 存儲結果 MOV A R7 SUBB A 3CH MOV 30H A SETB EX0 ； 開外部中斷 0 POP ACC ‐4‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯 POP PSW RETI對于一個平坦的目標，距離測量包括兩個階段:粗糙的測量和精細測量。第一步：脈沖的傳送產生一種簡單的超聲波。第二步：根據(jù)公式改變回波放大器的獲得量直到回撥被檢測到。第三步：檢測兩種回波的振幅與過零時間。第四步：設置回波放大器的所得來規(guī)格輸出，假定是 3 伏。通過脈沖的周期設置下一 個脈沖。根據(jù)第二部的數(shù)據(jù)設定時間窗。第五步：發(fā)射兩串脈沖產生干擾波。測量過零時間與回波的振幅。如果逆向發(fā)生在回 波中，決定要不通過在低氣壓插入振幅。第六步：通過公式計算距離 y。

4、超聲波測距系統(tǒng)的軟件設計 軟件分為兩部分，主程序和中斷服務程序。主程序完成初始化工作、各路超聲波發(fā)射和接收順序的控制。定時中斷服務子程序完成三方向超聲波的輪流發(fā)射，外部中斷服務子程序主要完成時間值的讀取、距離計算、結果的輸出等工作。

5、結論 對所要求測量范圍 30cm200cm 內的平面物體做了多次測量發(fā)現(xiàn)，其最大誤差為0.5cm，且重復性好?？梢娀趩纹瑱C設計的超聲波測距系統(tǒng)具有硬件結構簡單、工作可靠、測量誤差小等特點。因此，它不僅可用于移動機器人，還可用在其它檢測系統(tǒng)中。思考：至于為什么接收不用晶體管做放大電路呢，因為放大倍數(shù)搞不好，集成放大電路，還帶自動電平增益控制，放大倍數(shù)為 76dB，中心頻率是 38k 到 40k，剛好是超聲波傳感器的諧振頻率。‐5‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯 參考文獻1.Fox J.D.Khuri-Yakub B.T.and Kino G.S.quotHigh Frequency Acoustic WaveMeasurement in Airquot in Proceedings of IEEE 1983 Ultrasonic Symposium October 31-2November 1983 Atlanta GA pp.581-4.2.Martin Abreu J.M.Ceres R.and Freire T.quotUltrasonic Ranging: Envelope AnalysisGives Improved Accuracyquot Sensor Review Vol.12 No.1 1992 pp.17-21.3.Parrilla M.Anaya J.J.and Fritsch C.quotDigital Signal Processing Techniques for HighAccuracy Ultrasonic Range Measurementsquot IEEE Transactions: Instrumentation andMeasurement Vol.40 No.4 August 1991 pp.759-63.4.Canali C.Cicco G.D.Mortem B.Prudenziati M.and Taron A.quotA TemperatureCompensated Ultrasonic Sensor Operating in Air for Distance and ProximityMeasurementquot IEEE Transaction on Industry Electronics Vol.IE-29 No.4 1982 pp.336-41.‐6‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯 Ultrasonic ranging system design Publicationtitle: Sensor Review.Bradford: 1993.Vol.13ABSTRACT：Ultrasonic ranging technology has wide using worth in many fields，such as the industriallocale，vehicle navigation and sonar engineering．Now it has been used in level measurement，self-guided autonomous vehicles fieldwork robots automotive navigation，air and underwater targetdetection，identification，location and so on．So there is an important practicing meaning to learn theranging theory and ways deeply.To improve the precision of the ultrasonic ranging system in hand，satisfy the request of the engineering personnel for the ranging precision，the bound and the usage，aportable ultrasonic ranging system based on the single chip processor was developed．Keywords：Ultrasound r，Ranging System，Single Chip Processor1.Introductive With the development of science and technology the improvement of peoplesstandard of living speeding up the development and construction of the city.urbandrainage system have greatly developed their situation is constantly improving.Howeverdue to historical reasons many unpredictable factors in the synthesis of her time the citydrainage system.In particular drainage system often lags behind urban construction.Therefore there are often good building excavation has been building facilities to upgradethe drainage system phenomenon.It brought to the city sewage and it is clear to the citysewage and drainage culvert in the sewage treatment system.comfort is very important topeoples lives.Mobile robots designed to clear the drainage culvert and the automaticcontrol system Free sewage culvert clear guarantee robot the robot is designed to clear theculvert sewage to the core.Control System is the core component of the development ofultrasonic range finder.Therefore it is very important to design a good ultrasonic rangefinder.2.A principle of ultrasonic distance measurement ‐7‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯2.1 The principle of piezoelectric ultrasonic generator Piezoelectric ultrasonic generator is the use of piezoelectric crystal resonators to work.Ultrasonic generator the internal structure as shown it has two piezoelectric chip and aresonance plate.When its two plus pulse signal the frequency equal to the intrinsicpiezoelectric oscillation frequency chip the chip will happen piezoelectric resonance andpromote the development of plate vibration resonance ultrasound is generated.Converselyif the two are not inter-electrode voltage when the board received ultrasonic resonance itwill be for vibration suppression of piezoelectric chip the mechanical energy is convertedto electrical signals then it becomes the ultrasonic receiver.The traditional way to determine the moment of the echos arrival is based onthresholding the received signal with a fixed reference.The threshold is chosen well abovethe noise level whereas the moment of arrival of an echo is defined as the first moment theecho signal surpasses that threshold.The intensity of an echo reflecting from an objectstrongly depends on the objects nature size and distance from the sensor.Further the timeinterval from the echos starting point to the moment when it surpasses the thresholdchanges with the intensity of the echo.As a consequence a considerable error may occurEven two echoes with different intensities arriving exactly at the same time will surpass thethreshold at different moments.The stronger one will surpass the threshold earlier than theweaker so it will be considered as belonging to a nearer object.2.2The principle of ultrasonic distance measurement Ultrasonic transmitter in a direction to launch ultrasound in the moment to launch thebeginning of time at the same time the spread of ultrasound in the air obstacles on his wayto return immediately the ultrasonic reflected wave received by the receiver immediatelystop the clock.Ultrasound in the air as the propagation velocity of 340m / s according tothe timer records the time t we can calculate the distance between the launch distancebarrier s that is: s 340t / 23.Ultrasonic Ranging System for the Second Circuit Design ‐8‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯 System is characterized by single-chip microcomputer to control the use of ultrasonictransmitter and ultrasonic receiver since the launch from time to time single-chip selectionof 8751 economic-to-use and the chip has 4K of ROM to facilitate programming.Circuitschematic diagram shown in Figure 2.Figure 1 circuit principle diagram ‐9‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯3.1 40 kHz ultrasonic pulse generated with the launch Ranging system using the ultrasonic sensor of piezoelectric ceramic sensors UCM40its operating voltage of the pulse signal is 40kHz which by the single-chip implementationof the following procedures to generate.puzel: mov 14h 12h ultrasonic firing continued 200mshere: cpl p1.0 output 40kHz square wave nop nop nop djnz 14h here ret Ranging in front of single-chip termination circuit P1.0 input port single chipimplementation of the above procedure the P1.0 port in a 40kHz pulse output signal afteramplification transistor T the drive to launch the first ultrasonic UCM40T issued 40kHzultrasonic pulse and the continued launch of 200ms.Ranging the right and the left side ofthe circuit respectively then input port P1.1 and P1.2 the working principle and circuit infront of the same location.3.2 Reception and processing of ultrasonic Used to receive the first launch of the first pair UCM40R the ultrasonic pulsemodulation signal into an alternating voltage the op-amp amplification IC1A and afterpolarization IC1B to IC2.IC2 is locked loop with audio decoder chip LM567 internalvoltage-controlled oscillator center frequency of f0 1/1.1R8C3 capacitor C4 determinetheir target bandwidth.R8-conditioning in the launch of the carrier frequency on theLM567 input signal is greater than 25mV the output from the high jump 8 feet into alow-level as interrupt request signals to the single-chip processing.Ranging in front of single-chip termination circuit output port INT0 interrupt thehighest priority right or left location of the output circuit with output gate IC3A accessINT1 port single-chip while single-chip P1.3 and P1.4 received input IC3A interrupted ‐10‐ 畢業(yè)設計（論文）英文翻譯by the process to identify the source of inquiry to deal with interrupt priority level for thefirst left right after.Part of the source code is as follows:receive1: push psw push acc clr ex1 related external interrupt 1 jnb p1.1 right P1.1 pin to 0 ranging from right to interrupt serviceroutine circuit jnb p1.2 left P1.2 pin to 0 to the left ranging circuit interruptservice routinereturn: SETB EX1 open external interrupt 1 pop acc pop psw retiright:...right location entrance circuit interrupt service routine Ajmp Returnleft:...left Ranging entrance circuit interrupt service routine Ajmp Return3.3 The calculation of ultrasonic propagation time When you start firing at the same time start the single-chip circuitry within the timerT0 the use of timer counting function records the time and the launch of ultrasonicreflected wave received time.When you receive the ultrasonic reflected wave the receivercircuit outputs a negative jump in the end of INT0 or INT1 interrupt request generates asignal single-chip microcomputer in response to external interrupt request theimplementation of the external interrupt service subroutine read the time differencecalculating the distance.Some of its source code is as follows:RECEIVE0: PUSH PSW PUSH ACC CLR EX0 related external interrupt 0.

第三篇：食品安全外文文獻翻譯(適用于畢業(yè)論文外文翻譯+中英文對照)

w 論食品供應鏈管理和食品質量安全

上世紀90年代以來,供應鏈管理已成為學術界和實業(yè)界關注的熱門話題,特別是供應鏈管理成功地應用于IBM、P&G、DELL 等公司的經營管理以后,食品和農產品行業(yè)也紛紛效仿并借助供應鏈管理這一工具來提高自身的競爭力。1996年,Zuurbier等學者在一般供應鏈的基礎上，首次提出了食品供應鏈概念，并認為食品供應鏈管理是農產品和食品生產銷售等組織,為了降低食品和農產品物流成本、提高其質量安全和物流服務水平而進行的垂直一體化運作模式。如今,在美國、英國、加拿大和荷蘭等農業(yè)生產較為發(fā)達的國家,這一管理模式已經廣為應用,并逐漸成為當今學術研究的重點課題。

對食品供應鏈管理的研究大致經歷了三個階段：第一階段為商流管理階段，研究范圍包括農產品和食品加工企業(yè)的產出到消費者消費前的商流階段，其研究內容通常被包含在營銷范疇內；第二階段為集成物流管理階段，農產品的物流管理從市場營銷中分離出來，且向上游擴展到農產品和食品生產企業(yè)的生產加工過程，強調生產應以市場需求為導向和對整個物流環(huán)節(jié)的成本控制；第三階段為供應鏈一體化管理階段，研究范圍進一步向上游延伸到農產品的最上游企業(yè)(如種子供應商等)，延伸的目的是為了跟蹤和追溯農產品食品質量安全問題，以便快速和有效地發(fā)現(xiàn)并解決問題。本文介紹了不同食品供應鏈的生產物流系統(tǒng)特點，并對食品供應鏈與食品質量安全管理的發(fā)展進行了分析和探討。

一．食品供應鏈管理的產生原因

近年來，食品供應鏈的產生和發(fā)展是人們對食品消費的要求不斷提高的必然結果。具體而言，產生的原因主要有：(1)消費者對食品和農產品的新鮮度要求越來越高，并要求食品和農產品交貨期、生產期越短越好。(2)消費者對食品和農產品的質量要求也越來越高，迫使食品生產企業(yè)實行食品供應鏈管理，以保證穩(wěn)定的上游原料供應和下游的銷售渠道暢通。(3)消費者對食品的質量安全也越來越關注。為了滿足消費者對食品和農產品在種類和數(shù)量上的要求，企業(yè)不斷尋求和研發(fā)新技術，而新技術和新方法的過度使用(如殺蟲劑、激素、抗生素和轉

w 基因技術等)，在滿足了消費者需求的同時，也不可避免地對人體產生了危害從而引起食品質量安全問題。這是因為市場中買賣雙方信息不對稱,消費者在購買食品或農產品時，不了解產品的衛(wèi)生、環(huán)保和安全信息。因此，企業(yè)有必要在生產過程的各個環(huán)節(jié)對產品進行檢驗和檢測并及時向消費者披露這些信息。(4)食品和農產品企業(yè)迫于政府、相關社會組織和消費者的要求和壓力，不得不按食品供應鏈來進行運作。例如，歐盟管理法規(guī)第178號規(guī)定，從2004年起在歐盟范圍內銷售的所有食品，都要實行食品供應鏈跟蹤與追溯；同樣在美國，食品與藥品管理局規(guī)定，在美國國內外從事食品生產、加工和包裝等的部門以及相關組織，在2003年12月12日前要向食品與藥品管理局進行登記，以便進行食品安全跟蹤與追溯，未登記者就不許從事食品生產和銷售。由此可見，食品供應鏈管理是在市場內在動力和政府外在壓力的情況下促成的。

二．食品供應鏈生產物流系統(tǒng)

食品供應鏈的形成是與其物流系統(tǒng)的內容不斷變化密切相關的,特別是在食品和農產品生產物流系統(tǒng)不斷演變的情況下,為人們創(chuàng)建高效率的食品供應鏈管理范式提供了基礎。根據(jù)食品和農產品物流的發(fā)展階段,典型的食品供應鏈可劃分為啞鈴型、T型、對稱型和混合型四種類型。

1.啞鈴型食品供應鏈。這種類型的食品供應鏈嚴格來說是一種準供應鏈。它的特點是供應鏈較短,連接位于兩端的交易主體很多,而中間鏈節(jié)少且交易主體也較少，呈現(xiàn)為啞鈴型。由于上游生產者擁有的技術條件較差、產量低和品種少，故上游聚集了為數(shù)眾多的農產品生產者；同時，由于產品生產地離市場較近且只提供單一農產品，也又使得鏈中參與交易的主體大多為農產品生產者，他們在市場上進行直接交易，而少有聯(lián)系生產者和消費者之間的中間商，因此，種植業(yè)者直接將食品和農產品銷售給消費者。在發(fā)展中國家,特別是靠近城鎮(zhèn)地區(qū)的蔬菜供應,一般都采用這種類型的供應鏈。

2.T型食品供應鏈。這種類型的食品供應鏈一般適用于食品和農產品的生產地和銷售地相距較遠，消費需求差異較大的情況。由于農產品易腐爛，農產品生產者不可能直接銷售自己的產品,需要通過必要的中間商提供服務,如第三方物流、農產品深加工商和批發(fā)商等所提供的相應服務。這種類型的供應鏈，上游聚

w 集了較多的農產品生產者,而在中游環(huán)節(jié)對產地生產情況比較了解,又在銷售地占有一定渠道優(yōu)勢的銷售商卻較少。因此,T型食品供應鏈的上游種植業(yè)者眾多,而中下游中間商和銷售商較少且集中,供應鏈的形狀呈現(xiàn)為 T型。與啞鈴型食品供應鏈相比,它的鏈條較長,食品和農產品的銷售表現(xiàn)為間接性和增值服務性。這種類型的食品供應鏈在中國較為普遍，在中國農業(yè)產業(yè)化不發(fā)達的地區(qū),由于缺乏一端連接上游農戶，另一端聯(lián)結銷售市場、專門從事農產品加工的龍頭企業(yè)以及相應的中間環(huán)節(jié)，農產品生產往往和市場需求相脫節(jié)。因此T型食品供應鏈由于中間環(huán)節(jié)缺位和低水平的物流運作，易出現(xiàn)上游農戶盲目生產而下游農產品銷售困難的現(xiàn)象。

3.對稱型食品供應鏈。隨著新興銷售業(yè)態(tài)的出現(xiàn),銷售渠道日益被大型專業(yè)市場和超市所壟斷,農產品和食品的傳統(tǒng)銷售形式也被超市所取代,而且這種趨勢越來越明顯,同時由于技術水平的提高,農產品生產也趨向于由少數(shù)種植商集約經營。Boselie.D通過對泰國皇家阿荷生鮮超市食品供應鏈管理的調查發(fā)現(xiàn),曼谷有50%的食品和農產品是在大型超市(如7-

11、皇家阿荷、家樂福、Sainsburry和TESCO)售出的。這些大型超市為了滿足市場對農產品品質一致性和供應穩(wěn)定性的要求，對供應商進行了嚴格的篩選。因此，皇家阿荷生鮮超市實施食品供應鏈管理后，將供應商從原來的250家減少為60家左右，使物流系統(tǒng)更加高效和簡潔。隨著上游農產品供應商數(shù)目的銳減和超市連鎖店的不斷擴張，這種食品供應鏈的上游供應商與下游超市連鎖店的數(shù)目呈現(xiàn)對稱增長之態(tài)勢。在發(fā)達國家及物流發(fā)展較為成熟的大城市里，這種食品供應鏈經常表現(xiàn)為集中采購、統(tǒng)一流通配送和減少不增值的物流環(huán)節(jié),以實現(xiàn)節(jié)約成本的精益物流戰(zhàn)略。

4.混合型食品供應鏈。隨著市場食品和農產品消費需求的多樣化，食品和農產品加工的比重也在逐步提高。據(jù)有關統(tǒng)計表明，美國2002未加工和加工蔬菜的比例為15%和85%；水果為30%和70%。其他國家的情況也大致如此。大型超市為了適應消費需求的顯著變化，將原先由獨立企業(yè)從事的專業(yè)化生產的增值環(huán)節(jié)進行“內部化”，專門建立大型加工及配送中心，對農產品進行清洗、分類、深度加工、包裝和配送等增值業(yè)務，同時通過在大型加工中心實施HACCP和GMP加工質量和衛(wèi)生安全認證，來保證食品和農產品的品質安全。這個環(huán)節(jié)是前述三個食品供應鏈中所沒有的，這是大型超市和連鎖店對市場需求作出快速反

w 應的結果。隨著上游供應商實力和優(yōu)勢的增強，加工中心的部分功能，如清洗、分類和深度加工等環(huán)節(jié)又向供應商回流，使得加工中心的重點放在處理和不斷擴大的農產品數(shù)量和種類業(yè)務上。因此，這種食品供應鏈是一種綜合型、多品種、大批量和多頻次的混合型供應鏈體系。這種食品供應鏈更關注消費者的滿意度，通過加工中心來對市場需求作出快速反應，并實時對農產品和食品進行“量身定制”和深度加工，以實現(xiàn)不同于精益物流的靈捷物流戰(zhàn)略。

三．食品供應鏈跟蹤與食品質量安全

近年來，由于食品供應鏈合作的重點由原來的保證供貨質量逐步轉向加強食品和農產品的質量安全，如瘋牛病、口蹄疫和轉基因食品等的出現(xiàn)。農產品和食品質量安全的跟蹤離不開食品供應鏈管理，因此基于質量安全的食品供應鏈跟蹤成了食品供應鏈管理的重點和難點。Golan.E等通過對美國生鮮農產品、谷類和油菜以及牛肉制品的調查研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，三者經食品供應鏈跟蹤后，在食品質量安全方面出現(xiàn)了很大的差異。而分析這些差異，他們又發(fā)現(xiàn)三種農產品食品供應鏈管理的共性，即存在三種驅動力。這也是企業(yè)實施食品供應鏈管理時需要分析考察的問題：

1.有利于食品和農產品差別化營銷，以提高食品和農產品的銷量。通過那些細小的或不能直接發(fā)現(xiàn)的食品質量安全的特性，可區(qū)別不同類型的農產品和食品。因為在食品和農產品市場上不僅存在大量單一的谷類和肉類產品，而且也有根據(jù)消費者不同的偏好和口味量身定制的食品。有些農產品和食品的質量可能容易判別，而另一些則不容易直接判別，甚至在消費之后也不能馬上發(fā)現(xiàn)其質量問題。例如，轉基因食用油，如未進行標識，消費者就很難判別食用油是否由非轉基因大豆加工而成。因此，對農產品和食品的安全質量和品質進行細分，是差別化營銷的必要前提。

2.有利于農產品和食品質量安全的跟蹤，減少食品和農產品召回成本。許多企業(yè)已利用食品供應鏈跟蹤系統(tǒng)，來最大限度地減少食品安全體系缺陷可能造成的潛在損失。供應商通常有著很強的經濟驅動性，當發(fā)現(xiàn)食品有安全隱患和質量問題時，他們往往會采取措施，避免食品質量安全問題給企業(yè)自身或品牌帶來負面的影響。基于食品供應鏈的跟蹤能幫助企業(yè)縮短確認和清理有問題食品的時

w 間，為此，國外許多企業(yè)將相關標識信息揭示在食品包裝上，以便利消費者的識別和認定。例如，在美國大多數(shù)要求召回的食品和農產品都被公布在美國農業(yè)部食品安全和檢驗服務的官方網(wǎng)站上，以便消費者根據(jù)食品包裝的標識信息來判定有問題的食品和農產品。有些企業(yè)則通過使用先進RSS條碼系統(tǒng)和EAN/UCC全球統(tǒng)一標識系統(tǒng)，更為具體地揭示食品供應鏈的標識信息，如每種產品的種子、施肥、使用抗生素的情況、生產時間、生產線、生產地、生產所使用的技術和生產次序，等等。因此某種產品一旦出現(xiàn)問題，這些標識信息將能夠發(fā)揮很大的作用。

目前，歐盟已經采用EAN/UCC系統(tǒng)，成功地開展了對牛肉、蔬菜等食品追蹤的研究。通過采用EAN/UCC-128條碼符號、GLN(全球位置碼)可以對食品供應鏈全過程中的產品及其屬性信息和參與方信息等進行有效的標識。在對食品跟蹤與追溯時，要求供應鏈中的每一道加工環(huán)節(jié)，不僅要對自己所加工完成的產品進行標識，還要采集所需加工的食品原料上的已有標識信息，并將其全部信息標識在加工完成的產品上，以備下一道加工環(huán)節(jié)或消費者使用，從而有效地解決了供應鏈各環(huán)節(jié)之間的聯(lián)系比較脆弱、實施跟蹤和追溯難度大的問題，也為企業(yè)減少因缺乏明確信息而將混在優(yōu)質食品中的劣質食品連同優(yōu)質食品一同處理的可能性。

3.有利于提高和改善供應方的物流管理。對于企業(yè)來說，管理生產物流和跟蹤相關零售信息(如條形碼)，能幫助企業(yè)了解其食品供應鏈的物流流出狀況，以便對供應鏈上游物流的流入進行有效管理。特別是有些企業(yè)采用了基于質量安全的食品供應鏈的高新技術追溯系統(tǒng)，如農場主使用電子耳標識和相關數(shù)據(jù)收集卡來跟蹤食品和農產品的免疫記錄、健康記錄和飼養(yǎng)記錄等。這些食品供應鏈的信息也能使食品或農產品在市場上獲得與其質量相符的價格。

然而，對所有食品和農產品都實施食品供應鏈的質量安全跟蹤是沒有必要的。Van Weele根據(jù)市場對農產品和食品信息的需求，確定食品供應鏈信息跟蹤的寬度、深度和精度。同理，企業(yè)對食品供應鏈信息跟蹤的寬度、深度和精度也反映出其對基于質量安全的食品供應鏈的成本和收益的一種綜合取向。因為信息跟蹤的寬度、深度和精度決定著企業(yè)整合食品供應鏈的投入和成本。只有當收益大于成本時，企業(yè)所選擇的寬度、深度和精度才是實施供應鏈質量安全跟蹤的動力和保證。

w Discussion on food supply chain management and food quality and safety

Since the 1990s, supply chain management has become the academic and business circles hot topic, especially in supply chain management successfully applied to IBM, P & G, DELL, etc.after the company's management, food and agricultural industries have followed suit and Supply chain management with a tool to improve their competitiveness.1996, Zuurbier and other scholars in general, on the basis of the supply chain, first proposed the concept of the food supply chain, and that the food supply chain management of agricultural and food production and marketing organization, food and agricultural products in order to reduce logistics costs and improve its quality and safety and logistics service level and for vertical integration mode of operation.Now, in the U.S., UK, Canada and the Netherlands and other more developed countries, agricultural production, this management model has been widely used, and gradually become the focus of academic research project.The food supply chain management research has gone through three stages: the first stage of the business flow management phase, the study of agricultural products and food processing enterprises, including the output of consumer spending to business before the flow phase, the content of their research is often included In the marketing context;the second stage of integrated logistics management phase, agricultural marketing, logistics management separate from, and to extend to the upstream producers of agricultural and food production process, emphasizing the production should be based on market demand and cost control throughout the supply chain;the third stage of supply chain integration management phase, the study extends further upstream to the most upstream agricultural enterprises(such as seed suppliers, etc.), the purpose is to extend the tracking and tracing of food quality and safety of

w agricultural products issues in order to quickly and effectively identify and solve problems.This article describes the production of different food supply chain logistics system characteristics, and the food supply chain management with the development of food quality and safety are analyzed and discussed.One.Food causes of supply chain management In recent years, the food supply chain, production and development of people's increasing demands for food consumption, the inevitable result.Specifically, the causes are:(1)the consumer fresh food and agricultural products have become increasingly demanding and require delivery of food and agricultural products, the production period as short as possible.(2)consumers of food and agricultural products quality requirements have become more sophisticated, forcing food manufacturers to implement the food supply chain management to ensure a stable supply of raw materials upstream and downstream sales channels.(3)food quality and safety of consumers are increasingly concerned about.In order to meet consumer demand for food and agricultural products in the type and quantity requirements, companies continue to seek and develop new technologies, and new technologies and new methods of excessive use(such as pesticides, hormones, antibiotics and genetically modified technology, etc.)to meet the consumer demand, but also inevitably produced a hazard causing human food quality and safety issues.This is because buyers and sellers in the market information asymmetry, consumers in the purchase of food or agricultural products, the products do not understand the health, environmental and safety information.Therefore, enterprises need in all aspects of the production process inspection and testing of products and timely disclosure of information to consumers.(4)food and agricultural companies forced the government, Relevant social

w organizations and consumer demands and pressure to press the food supply chain to operate.For example, EU regulations No.178, as from 2004 in all EU-wide sales of food, must be implemented to track and trace food supply chain;the same in the United States Food and Drug Administration regulations in the United States and abroad engaged in food production, processing and packaging departments and related organizations in the December 12, 2003 to register the Food and Drug Administration for food safety tracking and tracing, on the allowed unregistered persons engaged in food production and sales.Thus, the food supply chain management is inherent in the market dynamics and the external pressure the government to promote the case.Two.Food supply chain, production logistics system The formation of the food supply chain logistics system with the changing content of closely related, particularly in the food and agricultural production logistics system evolving situation, for people to create a highly efficient food supply chain management paradigm provides the basis.According to food and agricultural products logistics stage of development, typical of the food supply chain can be divided into dumbbell-shaped, T-, symmetric and mixed four types.1．dumbbell food supply chain.This type of food supply chain is a quasi-strict supply chain.It is characterized by a shorter supply chain, connecting the main lot located at both ends of the transaction, while the middle of the main chain are few and fewer transactions, showing the dumbbell type.Upstream producers have poor technical conditions, production is low and less variety, it gathered a large number of upstream agricultural producers;the same time, products from the market to close and only a single farm, it also makes the chain in Most of the main trading agricultural producers, their direct trading in the market, and little

w contact between producers and consumers, middlemen, so growers sell directly to consumers food and agricultural products.In developing countries, especially near urban areas, the supply of vegetables, generally using this type of supply chain.2.T type of food supply chain.This type of food supply chains are generally applicable to food and agricultural production and sales of land to the far distance, consumer demand quite different situation.As perishable agricultural products, agricultural producers can not sell their products directly, through intermediaries to provide the necessary services, such as third-party logistics, agricultural processors and wholesalers provide appropriate services.This type of supply chain, upstream gathered more producers, and in the middle part of a better understanding of the origin of production, but also in the sales channels to occupy a certain advantage, but fewer vendors.Therefore, T-food supply chain and many growers, brokers and sellers and less downstream and concentrated, showing the shape of the supply chain for the T-type.And dumbbell-shaped compared to the food supply chain, which chain is longer, the sales performance of food and agricultural products and value-added services for the indirect nature.This type of food supply chains more common in China, China's agriculture industry in less developed regions, due to lack of upstream farmers to connect one end, other end of the link sales market, specializing in the processing of agricultural products among leading enterprises and the corresponding part of agricultural production often out of line with market demand.Therefore, T-middle part of the food supply chain as a low level of absence and logistics operation, prone to upstream farmers and downstream production of agricultural products sold blindly difficult phenomenon.3．symmetric food supply chain.With the emergence of new sales formats, distribution channels are increasingly large-scale professional market

w and supermarket monopoly, the traditional sales of agricultural products and food forms have been replaced by supermarkets, and this trend is more and more obvious, and because of its technological level of agricultural products production also tends to intensive management by a few growers.Boselie.D Ahe by the Royal Thai supermarket fresh food supply chain management survey found that 50% of Bangkok's food and agricultural products in large supermarkets(such as 7-11, Royal Ahe, Carrefour, Sainsburry and TESCO)sold of.These large supermarkets in order to meet the market for agricultural products, quality consistency and supply stability requirements, the supplier of a rigorous screening.Therefore, the implementation of the Royal Ahe supermarket fresh food supply chain management, will be vendors from the original 250 was reduced to about 60, so that the logistics system more efficient and concise.With the upper reaches of the sharp drop in the number of suppliers of agricultural products and the continuous expansion of the supermarket chain, this food supply chain, upstream suppliers and downstream number of supermarket chains showed symmetrical growth trend.Logistics development in developed and more mature cities, this has been expressed in the food supply chain, centralized purchasing, reduce non-uniform flow distribution and value-added logistics sectors, in order to achieve cost savings of lean logistics strategy.4．mixed food supply chain.With consumer demand for food and agricultural products market diversification, the proportion of food and agricultural processing has gradually improved.According to the statistics that the United States in 2002 raw and processed vegetables for 15% and 85%;fruit of 30% and 70%.Other countries also generally the case.Large supermarkets in order to meet consumer demand significant changes to the original by an independent enterprise engaged in specialized production of value-added aspects of “internal” and

w specifically the establishment of large-scale processing and distribution center for agricultural products for cleaning, sorting, in-depth processing, packaging and distribution and other value-added services, through the implementation of HACCP in a large processing center and GMP certification process quality and health and safety, to ensure the quality of food and agricultural safety.The link is above three does not have the food supply chain, which is large supermarkets and chain stores to respond quickly to market demands results.With upstream suppliers to enhance the strength and advantages of the processing center part of the function, such as cleaning, sorting and depth of processing and other sectors Youxiang supplier back, making the processing center focused on the processing of agricultural products and expanding the number and type of business.Therefore, this food supply chain is a comprehensive, multi-species, multi-frequency high-volume and mix of supply chain system.This food supply chain are more concerned about customer satisfaction, through the processing centers to respond quickly to market demand, and real-time on agricultural products and foodstuffs “tailored” and depth of processing, in order to achieve different from the lean agile logistics logistics strategy.Three.Food supply chain tracking and food quality and safety In recent years, the focus of the food supply chain collaboration to ensure delivery of quality from the gradual move to reinforce the quality and safety of food and agricultural products, such as BSE, foot and mouth disease and the emergence of genetically modified foods.Agricultural products and food quality and safety of track without food supply chain management, so based on quality and safety of the food supply chain to track the food supply chain management has become important and difficult.Golan.E by the United States and other fresh produce, meat products，w cereals and oilseed rape, and survey findings, three by the food supply chain tracking, food quality and safety in that there are great differences.The analysis of these differences, they also found that three agricultural products common food supply chain management, that there are three driving forces.This is also the corporate implementation of the food supply chain management requires analysis examines the question: 1．will help differentiate the marketing of food and agricultural products to improve food and agricultural sales.Through those small or can not be directly found in food quality and safety features, can distinguish between different types of agricultural products and food.Because in the food and agricultural products on the market not only in large single grains and meat products, but also based on consumer preferences and tastes of different tailor-made food.Some agricultural products and food quality may be easier to distinguish, while others are not easy to directly determine, even after the consumer can not immediately find its quality.For example, transgenic edible oil, if not identified, the consumer it is difficult to determine whether the oil processed from non-genetically modified soybeans.Therefore, the quality of agricultural products and food safety and quality of the segmentation is a necessary prerequisite for differentiated marketing.2.is conducive to quality and safety of agricultural products and food tracking, reducing the cost of food and agricultural products recall.Many companies have used the food supply chain tracking systems to minimize food safety system deficiencies may result in potential losses.Suppliers often have a strong economy driven, when discovered food safety hazards and quality problems are, they tend to take measures to avoid food quality and safety issues to the companies themselves, or have a negative impact on the brand.Based on the food supply chain tracking can help businesses identify and reduce the time to clean up the food in question, for many

w foreign companies to reveal identifying information related to food packaging, to facilitate the identification of consumers and identified.For example, in the United States requested the recall of most food and agricultural products have been released in the United States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service's official website for consumers based on food packaging, identification information to determine the question of food and agricultural products.Some companies are using advanced RSS bar code system and EAN / UCC Global unified identification system, more specifically reveal the identity of the food supply chain information, such as the product of each seed, fertilizer, use of antibiotics, production time, production lines, production , the production technology used and the production order, and so on.Therefore, a product if there are problems, these identification information will be able to play a significant role.Currently, the EU has adopted EAN / UCC system, successfully carried out on beef, vegetables and other food tracking research.By using EAN/UCC-128 bar code symbol, GLN(Global Location Number)to the food supply chain and the whole process of product attribute information and participants information for effective identification.Tracking and traceability in the food, the requirements of the supply chain process in every aspect, not only to complete the processing of their products for identification, but also to collect the necessary processing of food materials has been on the identification information, and all information identified in the processing of finished products, to prepare for the next part of a process or consumer use, in order to effectively solve the supply chain link between the weak, difficult to track and trace the problem, but also for companies to reduce by lack of clear information and good food will be mixed in with the poor quality of food processing with the possibility of high-quality food.w 3．will help enhance and improve the supply side of logistics management.For businesses, the management of production logistics and track-related retail information(such as bar code), to help businesses understand their food supply chain, logistics and outflow conditions for the supply chain for effective management of logistics flows.In particular, some businesses have adopted based on the quality and safety of the food supply chain of high-tech tracking system, such as farmers use electronic ear identification cards and related data collection to track the immunization records of food and agricultural products, health records and breeding records.The food supply chain information can also make food or agricultural products in the market for its consistent quality and price.However, the implementation of all food and agricultural products quality and safety of the food supply chain tracking is not necessary.Van Weele, according to market information on agricultural and food needs of the food supply chain information to determine the track width, depth and accuracy.Similarly, companies in the food supply chain information to track width, depth and accuracy also reflects on the quality and safety of its food supply chain costs and benefits of an integrated approach.Because the information track width, depth and accuracy of a determinant of business investment in the food supply chain integration and cost.Only when the benefits outweigh the costs, the firm chosen width, depth and accuracy is the implementation of supply chain quality and safety of track power and assurance.

第四篇：關于現(xiàn)代工業(yè)機械手外文文獻翻譯@中英文翻譯@外文翻譯

附錄

About Modenr Industrial Manipulayor Robot is a type of mechantronics equipment which synthesizes the last research achievement of engine and precision engine, micro-electronics and computer, automation control and drive, sensor and message dispose and artificial intelligence and so on.With the development of economic and the demand for automation control, robot technology is developed quickly and all types of the robots products are come into being.The practicality use of robot not only solves the problems which are difficult to operate for human being, but also advances the industrial automation program.Modern industrial robots are true marvels of engineering.A robot the size of a person can easily carry a load over one hundred pounds and move it very quickly with a repeatability of 0.006inches.Furthermore these robots can do that 24hours a day for years on end with no failures whatsoever.Though they are reprogrammable, in many applications they are programmed once and then repeat that exact same task for years.At present, the research and development of robot involves several kinds of technology and the robot system configuration is so complex that the cost at large is high which to a certain extent limit the robot abroad use.To development economic practicality and high reliability robot system will be value to robot social application and economy development.With he rapid progress with the control economy and expanding of the modern cities, the let of sewage is increasing quickly;with the development of modern technology and the enhancement of consciousness about environment reserve, more and more people realized the importance and urgent of sewage disposal.Active bacteria method is an effective technique for sewage disposal.The abundance requirement for lacunaris plastic makes it is a consequent for plastic producing with automation and high productivity.Therefore, it is very necessary to design a manipulator that can automatically fulfill the plastic holding.With the analysis of the problems in the design of the plastic

holding manipulator and synthesizing the robot research and development condition in recent years, a economic scheme is concluded on the basis of the analysis of mechanical configuration, transform system, drive device and control system and guided by the idea of the characteristic and complex of mechanical configuration, electronic, software and hardware.In this article, the mechanical configuration combines the character of direction coordinate which can improve the stability and operation flexibility of the system.The main function of the transmission mechanism is to transmit power to implement department and complete the necessary movement.In this transmission structure, the screw transmission mechanism transmits the rotary motion into linear motion.Worm gear can give vary transmission ratio.Both of the transmission mechanisms have a characteristic of compact structure.The design of drive system often is limited by the environment condition and the factor of cost and technical lever.The step motor can receive digital signal directly and has the ability to response outer environment immediately and has no accumulation error, which often is used in driving system.In this driving system, open-loop control system is composed of stepping motor, which can satisfy the demand not only for control precision but also for the target of economic and practicality.On this basis, the analysis of stepping motor in power calculating and style selecting is also given.The analysis of kinematics and dynamics for object holding manipulator is given in completing the design of mechanical structure and drive system.Current industrial approaches to robot arm control treat each joint of the robot arm as a simple joint servomechanism.The servomechanism approach models the varying dynamics of a manipulator inadequately because it neglects the motion and configuration of the whole arm mechanism.These changes in the parameters of the controlled system sometimes are significant enough to render conventional feedback control strategies ineffective.The result is reduced servo response speed and damping, limiting the precision and speed of the end-effecter and making it appropriate only for limited-precision tasks.Manipulators controlled in this manner move at slow speeds with unnecessary vibrations.Any significant performance gain in this and other areas of robot arm control require the consideration of more efficient dynamic models, sophisticated control approaches, and the use of dedicated computer architectures and parallel processing techniques.In the industrial production and other fields, people often endangered by such factors as high temperature, corrode, poisonous gas and so forth at work, which have increased labor intensity and even jeopardized the life sometimes.The corresponding problems are solved since the robot arm comes out.The arms can catch, put and carry objects, and its movements are flexible and diversified.It applies to medium and small-scale automated production in which production varieties can be switched.And it is widely used on soft automatic line.The robot arms are generally made by withstand high temperatures, resist corrosion of materials to adapt to the harsh environment.So they reduced the labor intensity of the workers significantly and raised work efficiency.The robot arm is an important component of industrial robot, and it can be called industrial robots on many occasions.Industrial robot is set machinery, electronics, control, computers, sensors, artificial intelligence and other advanced technologies in the integration of multidisciplinary important modern manufacturing equipment.Widely using industrial robots, not only can improve product quality and production, but also is of great significance for physical security protection, improvement of the environment for labor, reducing labor intensity, improvement of labor productivity, raw material consumption savings and lowering production costs.There are such mechanical components as ball footbridge, slides, air control mechanical hand and so on in the design.A programmable controller, a programming device, stepping motors, stepping motors drives, direct current motors, sensors, switch power supply, an electromagnetism valve and control desk are used in electrical connection.Robot is the automated production of a kind used in the process of crawling and moving piece features automatic device, which is mechanized and automated production process developed a new type of device.In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of hightech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation.Robot can replace humans completed the risk of duplication of boring work, to reduce human labor intensity and improve labor productivity.Manipulator has been applied more and more widely, in the machinery industry, it can be used for parts assembly, work piece handling, loading and unloading, particularly in the automation of CNC machine tools, modular machine tools more commonly used.At present, the robot has developed into a FMS flexible manufacturing systems and flexible manufacturing cell in an important component of the FMC.The machine tool equipment and machinery in hand together constitute a flexible manufacturing system or a flexible manufacturing cell, it was adapted to small and medium volume production, you can save a huge amount of the work piece conveyor device, compact, and adaptable.When the work piece changes, flexible production system is very easy to change will help enterprises to continuously update the marketable variety, improve product quality, and better adapt to market competition.At present, China's industrial robot technology and its engineering application level and comparable to foreign countries there is a certain distance, application and industrialization of the size of the low level of robot research and development of a direct impact on raising the level of automation in China, from the economy, technical considerations are very necessary.Therefore, the study of mechanical hand design is very meaningful.關于現(xiàn)代工業(yè)機械手

機器人是典型的機電一體化裝置，它綜合運用了機械與精密機械、微電子與計算機、自動控制與驅動、傳感器與信息處理以及人工智能等多學科的最新研究成果，隨著經濟技術的發(fā)展和各行各業(yè)對自動化程度要求的提高，機器人技術得到了迅速發(fā)展，出現(xiàn)了各種各樣的機器人產品。現(xiàn)代工業(yè)機器人是人類真正的奇跡工程。一個像人那么大的機器人可以輕松地抬起超過一百磅并可以在誤差0.006英寸內重復運動。更重要的是這些機器人可以每天24小時不停止地工作。在許多應用中他們是通過編程控制的，但是他們一旦編程一次，他們可以重復地做同一個工作許多年。機器人產品的實用化，既解決了許多單靠人力難以解決的實際問題，又促進了工業(yè)自動化的進程。

目前，由于機器人的研制和開發(fā)涉及多方面的技術，系統(tǒng)結構復雜，開發(fā)和研制的成本普遍較高，在某種程度上限制了該項技術的廣泛應用，因此，研制經濟型、實用化、高可靠性機器人系統(tǒng)具有廣泛的社會現(xiàn)實意義和經濟價值。由于我國經濟建設和城市化的快速發(fā)展，城市污染排水放量增長很快，污水處理已經擺在了人們的議事日程上來。隨著科學技術的發(fā)展和人類知識水平的提高，人們越來越認識到污水處理的重要性和迫切性，科學家和研究人員發(fā)現(xiàn)塑料制品在水中時用于污水處理的很有效地污泥菌群的附著體。塑料制品的大量需求，使得塑料制品生產的自動化和高效率要求成為經濟發(fā)展的必然。本文結合塑料一次擠出成型機和塑料抓取機械手的研制過程中出現(xiàn)的問題，綜述近幾年機器人技術研究和發(fā)展的狀況，在從分發(fā)揮機、電、軟、硬件各自特點和優(yōu)勢互補的基礎上，對物料抓取機械手整體機械結構、傳動系統(tǒng)、驅動裝置和控制系統(tǒng)進行了分析和設計，提出了一套經濟型設計方案。采用直角坐標和關節(jié)坐標相結合的框架式機械結構形式，這種方式能夠提高系統(tǒng)的穩(wěn)定性和操作靈活性。傳動裝置的作用是將驅動元件的動力傳遞給機器人機械手相應的執(zhí)行機構，以實現(xiàn)各種必要的運動，傳動方式上采用結構緊湊、傳動比答得蝸輪蝸桿傳動和將旋轉運動轉換為直線運動的螺旋傳動。機械手驅動系統(tǒng)的設計往往受到作業(yè)環(huán)境條件的限制，同時也要考慮價格因素的影響以及能夠達到的技術水平。由于步進電機能都直接接收數(shù)字量，響應速度快而且工作可靠并無累計誤差，常用作數(shù)字控制系統(tǒng)驅動機構的動力元件，因此，在驅動裝置中采用由步進電機構成的環(huán)控制方式，這種方式技能滿足控制精度的要求，又能達到經濟型、實用化目的。

目前的工業(yè)機械臂控制將每一個機械臂的聯(lián)合看做一個簡單的聯(lián)合伺服。伺服方法不能從分地模仿不同的動力學機械手，因為它忽略了機械手整體的運動和配置。這些控制系統(tǒng)的參數(shù)的變化有時是足夠重要，以至于使常規(guī)的反饋控制方法失效。其結果是減少了伺服相應的速度和阻尼，限制了京都和最終效應的速度，使系統(tǒng)僅適用于有限精度的工作。機械手以這種方式控制速度降低而沒有不必要的震動。任何在這一領域和其它領域的機械臂性能增益要求更有效率的動態(tài)模型、精密的控制方法、專門的計算機架構和并行處理技術。

在工業(yè)生產和其它領域內，由于工作的需要，人們經常受到高溫、腐蝕及有毒氣體等因素的危害，增加了工人的勞動強度，甚至于危及生命。自從機械手問世以來，相應的各種難題迎刃而解。機械手可在空間抓、放、搬運物體，動作靈活多樣，適用于可變換生產品種的中、小批量自動化生產，廣泛應用于柔性自動線。機械手一般由耐高溫，抗腐蝕的材料制成，以適應現(xiàn)場惡劣環(huán)境，大大降低了工人的勞動強度，提高了工作效率。機械手是工業(yè)機器人的重要組成部分，在很多情況下它就可以稱為工業(yè)機器人。工業(yè)機器人集機械、電子、控制、計算機、傳感器、人工智能等多學科先進技術于一體化的現(xiàn)代制造業(yè)重要的自動化裝備。廣泛采用工業(yè)機器人，不僅可以提高產品的質量與產量，而且對保障人身安全，改善勞動環(huán)境，減輕勞動強度，提高勞動生產率，節(jié)約原材料消耗以及降低生產成本，有著十分重要的意義。

工業(yè)機械手是工業(yè)機器人的一個重要分支。它的特點是可通過編程來完成各種預期的作業(yè)任務，在構造和性能上兼有人和機器各自的優(yōu)點，尤其體現(xiàn)了人的智能和適應性。機械手作業(yè)的準確性和各種環(huán)境中完成作業(yè)的能力，在國民經濟各領域有著廣闊的發(fā)展前景。隨著工業(yè)自動化的發(fā)展, 出現(xiàn)了數(shù)控加工中心,它在減輕工人的勞動強度的同時, 大大提高了勞動生產率。但數(shù)控加工中常見的上下料工序, 通常仍采用人工操作或傳統(tǒng)繼電器控制的半自動化裝置。前者費時費工、效率低;后者因設計復雜, 需較多繼電器,接線繁雜, 易受車體振動干擾,而存在可靠性差、故障多、維修困難等問題?？删幊绦蚩刂破鱌LC控制的上下料機械手控制系統(tǒng)動作簡便、線路設計合理、具有較強的抗干擾能力, 保證了系統(tǒng)運行的可靠性,降低了維修率, 提高了工作效率。機械手技術涉及到力學、機械學、電氣液壓技術、自動控制技術、傳感器技術和計算機技術等科學領域，是一門跨學科綜合技術。

機械手主要由手部和運動機構組成。手部是用來抓持工件（或工具）的部件，根據(jù)被抓持物件的形狀、尺寸、重量、材料和作業(yè)要求而有多種結構形式，如夾持型、托持型和吸附型等。運動機構，使手部完成各種轉動（擺動）、移動或復合運動來實現(xiàn)規(guī)定的動作，改變被抓持物件的位置和姿勢......機械手是在自動化生產過程中使用的一種具有抓取和移動工件功能的自動化裝置，它是在機械化、自動化生產過程中發(fā)展起來的一種新型裝置。近年來，隨著電子技術特別是電子計算機的廣泛應用，機器人的研制和生產已成為高技術領域內迅速發(fā)展起來的一門新興技術，它更加促進了機械手的發(fā)展，使得機械手能更好地實現(xiàn)與機械化和自動化的有機結合。機械手能代替人類完成危險、重復枯燥的工作，減輕人類勞動強度，提高勞動生產力。機械手越來越廣泛的得到了應用，在機械行業(yè)中它可用于零部件組裝，加工工件的搬運、裝卸，特別是在自動化數(shù)控機床、組合機床上使用更普遍。目前，機械手已發(fā)展成為柔性制造系統(tǒng)FMS和柔性制造單元FMC中一個重要組成部分。把機床設備和機械手共同構成一個柔性加工系統(tǒng)或柔性制造單元，它適應于中、小批量生產，可以節(jié)省龐大的工件輸送裝置，結構緊湊，而且適應性很強。當工件變更時，柔性生產系統(tǒng)很容易改變，有利于企業(yè)不斷更新適銷對路的品種，提高產品質量，更好地適應市場競爭的需要。而目前我國的工業(yè)機器人技術及其工程應用的水平和國外比還有一定的距離，應用規(guī)模和產業(yè)化水平低，機械手的研究和開發(fā)直接影響到我國自動化生產水平的提高，從經濟上、技術上考慮都是十分必要的。因此，進行機械手的研究設計是非常有意義的。

第五篇：機器人外文翻譯(文獻翻譯_中英文翻譯)

外文翻譯

外文資料：

Robots First, I explain the background robots, robot technology development.It should be said it is a common scientific and technological development of a comprehensive results, for the socio-economic development of a significant impact on a science and technology.It attributed the development of all countries in the Second World War to strengthen the economic input on strengthening the country's economic development.But they also demand the development of the productive forces the inevitable result of human development itself is the inevitable result then with the development of humanity, people constantly discuss the natural process, in understanding and reconstructing the natural process, people need to be able to liberate a slave.So this is the slave people to be able to replace the complex and engaged in heavy manual labor, People do not realize right up to the world's understanding and transformation of this technology as well as people in the development process of an objective need.Robots are three stages of development, in other words, we are accustomed to regarding robots are divided into three categories.is a first-generation robots, also known as teach-type robot, it is through a computer, to control over one of a mechanical degrees of freedom Through teaching and information stored procedures, working hours to read out information, and then issued a directive so the robot can repeat according to the people at that time said the results show this kind of movement again, For example, the car spot welding robots, only to put this spot welding process, after teaching, and it is always a repeat of a work It has the external environment is no perception that the force manipulation of the size of the work piece there does not exist, welding 0S It does not know, then this fact from the first generation robot, it will exist this shortcoming, it in the 20th century, the late 1970s, people started to study the second-generation robot, called Robot with the feeling that This feeling with the robot is similar in function of a certain feeling, for instance, force and touch, slipping, visual, hearing and who is analogous to that with all kinds of feelings, say in a robot grasping objects, In fact, it can be the size of feeling out, it can through visual, to be able to feel and identify its shape, size, color Grasping an egg, it adopted a acumen, aware of its power and the size of the slide.Third-generation robots, we were a robotics ideal pursued by the most advanced stage, called intelligent robots, So long as tell it what to do, not how to tell it to do, it will be able to complete the campaign, thinking and perception of this man-machine communication function and function Well, this current development or relative is in a smart part of the concept and meaning But the real significance of the integrity of this intelligent robot did not actually exist, but as we continued the development of science and technology, the concept of intelligent increasingly rich, it grows ever wider connotations.Now, I would like to briefly outline some of the industrial robot situation.So far, the industrial robot is the most mature and widely used category of a robot, now the world's total sales of 1.1 million Taiwan, which is the 1999 statistics, however, 1.1 million in Taiwan have been using the equipment is 75 million, this volume is not small.Overall, the Japanese industrial robots in this one, is the first of the robots to become the Kingdom, the United States have developed rapidly.Newly installed in several areas of Taiwan, which already exceeds Japan, China has only just begun to enter the stage of industrialization, has developed a variety of industrial robot prototype and small batch has been used in production.Spot welding robot is the auto production line, improve production efficiency and raise the quality of welding car, reduce the labor intensity of a robot.It is characterized by two pairs of robots for spot welding of steel plate, bearing a great need for the welding tongs, general in dozens of kilograms or more, then its speed in meters per second a 5-2 meter of such high-speed movement.So it is generally five to six degrees of freedom, load 30 to 120 kilograms, the great space, probably expected that the work of a spherical space, a high velocity, the concept of freedom, that is to say, Movement is relatively independent of the number of components, the equivalent of our body, waist is a rotary degree of freedom We have to be able to hold his arm, Arm can be bent, then this three degrees of freedom, Meanwhile there is a wrist posture adjustment to the use of the three autonomy, the general robot has six degrees of freedom.We will be able to space the three locations, three postures, the robot fully achieved, and of course we have less than six degrees of freedom.Have more than six degrees of freedom robot, in different occasions the need to configure.The second category of service robots, with the development of industrialization, especially in the past decade, Robot development in the areas of application are continuously expanding, and now a very important characteristic, as we all know, Robot has gradually shifted from manufacturing to non-manufacturing and service industries, we are talking about the car manufacturer belonging to the manufacturing industry, However, the services sector including cleaning, refueling, rescue, rescue, relief, etc.These belong to the non-manufacturing industries and service industries, so here is compared with the industrial robot, it is a very important difference.It is primarily a mobile platform, it can move to sports, there are some arms operate, also installed some as a force sensor and visual sensors, ultrasonic ranging sensors, etc.It’s surrounding environment for the conduct of identification, to determine its campaign to complete some work, this is service robot’s one of the basic characteristics.For example, domestic robot is mainly embodied in the example of some of the carpets and flooring it to the regular cleaning and vacuuming.The robot it is very meaningful, it has sensors, it can furniture and people can identify, It automatically according to a law put to the ground under the road all cleaned up.This is also the home of some robot performance.The medical robots, nearly five years of relatively rapid development of new application areas.If people in the course of an operation, doctors surgery, is a fatigue, and the other manually operated accuracy is limited.Some universities in Germany, which, facing the spine, lumbar disc disease, the identification, can automatically use the robot-aided positioning, operation and surgery Like the United States have been more than 1,000 cases of human eyeball robot surgery, the robot, also including remote-controlled approach, the right of such gastrointestinal surgery, we see on the television inside.a manipulator, about the thickness fingers such a manipulator, inserted through the abdominal viscera, people on the screen operating the machines hand, it also used the method of laser lesion laser treatment, this is the case, people would not have a very big damage to the human body.In reality, this right as a human liberation is a very good robots, medical robots it is very complex, while it is fully automated to complete all the work, there are difficulties, and generally are people to participate.This is America, the development of such a surgery Lin Bai an example, through the screen, through a remote control operator to control another manipulator, through the realization of the right abdominal surgery A few years ago our country the exhibition, the United States has been successful in achieving the right to the heart valve surgery and bypass surgery.This robot has in the area, caused a great sensation, but also, AESOP's surgical robot, In fact, it through some equipment to some of the lesions inspections, through a manipulator can be achieved on some parts of the operation Also including remotely operated manipulator, and many doctors are able to participate in the robot under surgery Robot doctor to include doctors with pliers, tweezers or a knife to replace the nurses, while lighting automatically to the doctor's movements linked, the doctor hands off, lighting went off, This is very good, a doctor's assistant.Robot is mankind's right-hand man;friendly coexistence can be a reliable friend.In future, we will see and there will be a robot space inside, as a mutual aide and friend.Robots will create the jobs issue.We believe that there would not be a “robot appointment of workers being laid off” situation, because people with the development of society, In fact the people from the heavy physical and dangerous environment liberated, so that people have a better position to work, to create a better spiritual wealth and cultural wealth.譯文資料：

機器人

首先我介紹一下機器人產生的背景，機器人技術的發(fā)展，它應該說是一個科學技術發(fā)展共同的一個綜合性的結果，同時，為社會經濟發(fā)展產生了一個重大影響的一門科學技術，它的發(fā)展歸功于在第二次世界大戰(zhàn)中各國加強了經濟的投入，就加強了本國的經濟的發(fā)展。另一方面它也是生產力發(fā)展的需求的必然結果，也是人類自身發(fā)展的必然結果，那么隨著人類的發(fā)展，人們在不斷探討自然過程中，在認識和改造自然過程中，需要能夠解放人的一種奴隸。那么這種奴隸就是代替人們去能夠從事復雜和繁重的體力勞動，實現(xiàn)人們對不可達世界的認識和改造，這也是人們在科技發(fā)展過程中的一個客觀需要。

機器人有三個發(fā)展階段，那么也就是說，我們習慣于把機器人分成三類，一種是第一代機器人，那么也叫示教再現(xiàn)型機器人，它是通過一個計算機，來控制一個多自由度的一個機械，通過示教存儲程序和信息，工作時把信息讀取出來，然后發(fā)出指令，這樣的話機器人可以重復的根據(jù)人當時示教的結果，再現(xiàn)出這種動作，比方說汽車的點焊機器人，它只要把這個點焊的過程示教完以后，它總是重復這樣一種工作，它對于外界的環(huán)境沒有感知，這個力操作力的大小，這個工件存在不存在，焊的好與壞，它并不知道，那么實際上這種從第一代機器人，也就存在它這種缺陷，因此，在20世紀70年代后期，人們開始研究第二代機器人，叫帶感覺的機器人，這種帶感覺的機器人是類似人在某種功能的感覺，比如說力覺、觸覺、滑覺、視覺、聽覺和人進行相類比，有了各種各樣的感覺，比方說在機器人抓一個物體的時候，它實際上力的大小能感覺出來，它能夠通過視覺，能夠去感受和識別它的形狀、大小、顏色。抓一個雞蛋，它能通過一個觸覺，知道它的力的大小和滑動的情況。第三代機器人，也是我們機器人學中一個理想的所追求的最高級的階段，叫智能機器人，那么只要告訴它做什么，不用告訴它怎么去做，它就能完成運動，感知思維和人機通訊的這種功能和機能，那么這個目前的發(fā)展還是相對的只是在局部有這種智能的概念和含義，但真正完整意義的這種智能機器人實際上并沒有存在，而只是隨著我們不斷的科學技術的發(fā)展，智能的概念越來越豐富，它內涵越來越寬。

下邊我簡單介紹一下工業(yè)機器人的一些情況。到目前為止，工業(yè)機器人是最成熟，應用最廣泛的一類機器人，世界總量目前已經銷售110萬臺，這是1999年的統(tǒng)計，但這110萬臺在已經進行裝備使用的是75萬臺，這個量也是不小的?？傮w情況看，日本在工業(yè)機器人這一塊，是首位的，成為機器人的王國，美國發(fā)展也很迅速，目前在新安裝的臺數(shù)方面，已經超過了日本，中國剛開始進入產業(yè)化的階段，已經研制出多種工業(yè)機器人樣機，已有小批量在生產中使用。

點焊機器人主要是針對汽車生產線，提高生產效率，提高汽車焊接的質量，降低工人的勞動強度的一種機器人。它的特點是通過機器人對兩個鋼板進行點焊的時候，需要承載一個很大的焊鉗，一般在幾十公斤以上，那么它的速度要求在每秒鐘一米五到兩米這樣的高速運動，所以它一般來說有五到六個自由度，負載三十到一百二十公斤，工作的空間很大，大概有兩米，這樣一個球形的工作空間，運動速度也很高，那么自由度的概念，就是說，是相對獨立運動的部件的個數(shù)，就相當于我們人體，腰是一個回轉的自由度，我們大臂可以抬起來，小臂可以彎曲，那么這就三個自由度，同時腕部還有一個調整姿態(tài)來使用的三個自由度，所以一般的機器人有六個自由度，就能把空間的三個位置，三個姿態(tài)，機器人完全實現(xiàn)，當然也有小于六個自由度的，也有多于六個自由度的機器人，只是在不同的需要場合來配置。

第二類是服務機器人，隨著工業(yè)化的發(fā)展，尤其近十年以來，機器人的發(fā)展的應用領域在不斷拓寬，目前一個很重要的特征，大家都知道，機器人已經從制造業(yè)逐漸轉向了非制造業(yè)和服務行業(yè)，剛才談的汽車制造屬于是制造業(yè)，但服務行業(yè)包括清潔、加油、救護、搶險、救災這些等等，都屬于非制造行業(yè)和服務行業(yè)，那么這里邊跟工業(yè)機器人相比，它有一個很重要的不同，它主要是一個移動平臺，它能夠移動、去運動，上面有一些手臂進行操作，同時還裝有一些像力覺傳感器和視覺傳感器、超聲測距傳感器等等。它對周邊的環(huán)境進行識別，來判斷它的運動，完成某種工作，這是服務機器人的基本的一個特點。

例如，家務機器人主要體現(xiàn)在像一些對地毯和地板定期的它能夠進行清掃和吸塵，它這個機器人很有意思，它有傳感器，它能夠把家具和人能識別出來，它自動的按照一種規(guī)律，能根據(jù)路徑把地面全部的清掃干凈，這也是家務中一些機器人的表現(xiàn)。

那么醫(yī)療機器人，是近五年來發(fā)展比較迅速的一個新的應用領域。如果人手術的時候，醫(yī)生來手術，一個是疲勞，另一個人手操作的精度還是有限的。在德國一些大學里面，面向人的脊椎，如腰間盤突出這種病，進行識別以后，能夠自動地用機器人來輔助進行定位，進行操作和手術。像美國已經有一千多例機器人對人眼球進行手術，這樣的機器人，還包括通過遙控操作的辦法，實現(xiàn)對人的胃腸這種手術，大家在電視里邊看到，一個機械手，大概有手指這樣粗細的一個機械手，通過插入腹臟以后，人在屏幕上操作這個機器手，同時對它用激光的方法對病灶進行激光的治療，這樣的話，人就不用很大幅度地破壞人的身體，這實際對人的一種解放，是非常好一種機器人，醫(yī)療機器人它也很復雜，一方面它完全自動去完成各種工作，是有困難的，一般來說都是人來參與，這是美國開發(fā)的一個林白手術這樣一個例子，人通過在屏幕上，通過一個遙控操作手來控制另一個機械手，實現(xiàn)通過對人的腹腔進行手術，前幾年我們國家展覽會上，美國已經成功的實現(xiàn)了對人的心臟瓣膜的手術和搭橋手術，這已經在機器人領域中，引起了很大的轟動，還包括，AESOP的這種外科手術機器人，它實際上通過一些儀器能夠對人的一些病變進行檢查，通過一個機械手就能夠實現(xiàn)對人的某些部位進行手術，還包括遙操作機械手，以及多個醫(yī)生可以在機器人共同參與下進行手術，包括機器人給大夫醫(yī)生拿鉗子、鑷子或刀子來代替護士的工作，同時把照明能夠自動的給醫(yī)生的動作聯(lián)系起來，醫(yī)生的手到哪兒，照明就去哪兒，這樣非常好的，一個醫(yī)生的助手。

機器人是人類的得力助手，能友好相處的可靠朋友，將來我們會看到人和機器人會存在一個空間里邊，成為一個互相的助手和朋友。機器人會不會產生飯碗的問題。我們相信不會出現(xiàn)“機器人上崗，工人下崗”的局面，因為人們隨著社會的發(fā)展，實際上把人們從繁重的體力和危險的環(huán)境中解放出來，使人們有更好的崗位去工作，去創(chuàng)造更好的精神財富和文化財富。